Blockchain Technology: An In-Depth Survey on Its Architecture, Evolution, and Research Frontiers

Abstract

Blockchain technology has emerged as a transformative paradigm that redefines trust, transparency, and decentralization in digital systems. This paper provides an in-depth survey of blockchain’s architectural foundations, technological evolution, application domains, and current research frontiers. Starting from the core components such as distributed ledgers, consensus protocols, and smart contracts, the survey traces the progression from first-generation cryptocurrencies to modern multi-chain and Layer 2 architectures. Key application areas including finance, supply chain, healthcare, identity management, and governance are analyzed, highlighting blockchain’s versatility and societal impact. The paper also examines persistent technical challenges, including scalability, privacy, interoperability, and governance, and reviews recent innovations such as zero-knowledge proofs, cross-chain communication, and decentralized finance. Finally, it outlines promising directions for future research, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary collaboration, responsible deployment, and usability enhancement. This comprehensive overview serves as a reference for researchers, practitioners, and policymakers engaged in the advancement of blockchain technology.